Scholarly essay

Technology in its broadest sense is the process by which we as humans adjust and modify the elements of nature to meet our own needs and wants. As we use technology to bring about learning, we recognize it to be a systematic way of designing, carrying out and valuating the total process of learning and teaching in terms of specific objectives, based on human and non-human resources to bring about effective instructions. Seels (1995) says that instructional technology “is the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management and evaluation of processes and resources for learning.” The primary goal of instructional technology is to enhance and ensure the efficiency and effectiveness of instruction. This is accomplished through the design of instruction, application of the theories of learning, the selection of delivery systems as well as assessing the characteristics and needs of the learners and evaluation of the processes. For the purpose of this paper, technology is mainly defined as any object or process of human origin that can be used to convey media. Technology includes films, books, television and internet.
Instructional media includes anything the instructor might use to execute instruction as well as to facilitate achievement of instructional objective, including the use of chalkboard, charts and videotapes, film as well as the internet and interactive video conferencing. In education, media are the symbol systems that teachers and students use to represent knowledge. Technologies are the tools that allow them to share their knowledge with others. Sometimes media and technology are used synonymously. Instructional media design involves discovering what the learning objectives and requirements are and the designing, testing and making of products and resources to satisfy them. The products are generally used in classroom or learning environment. Instructional media design uses a variety of media formats - traditional and computer-based - such as videotapes, slides, film, text, web sites, graphics, audio or video files, text, CD-ROM or computer programs
Are Media and Technology relevant in Instructional design?
There are arguments that appear to support the view that media do not affect learning in and of itself. Clarke (1994) posits that
….. some particular qualities of media may affect particular cognitions that are relevant for the learning of knowledge and skill required by students with specific aptitude levels when learning some tasks. These cognitive effects are not necessarily unique to one or another medium or attribute of a medium. The same cognitive effect may often be obtained by other means, which suggest a measure of “functional equivalence.” This implies that there may families of functionality equivalent but nominally different instructional presentation forms.
It must also be noted from Clarke’s point of view, instructional powers do not reside solely in the media for the way one perceives media influences the way one treats them. Media in education or instructional media is a part of technology, being the replicable means or vehicles by which instruction is formatted, stored and delivered to the learner (Clarke 1994). His research shows that media selection schemes should be selected on appeal and efficiency rather than presumed learning benefits. According to Clarke (1994), no medium enhances learning any more than any other medium regardless of learning task, learner trait or curriculum content. He also contends that any new technology is likely to teach better than its predecessors because it is generally better prepared instructional materials and its novelty engages learners. He holds the view that media “ are mere vehicles that deliver instruction but do not influence student achievement any more than the truck that delivers our groceries causes changes in our nutrition.”
Claims have been made regarding whatever learning or motivation advantage one can accomplish with computers can also be accomplished with other instructional delivery media and settings. The advantage of computers appears to be economic, not psychological.
Clarke (1994) holds that it is what the teacher does that influences learning, in that most of the methods carried by newer media can be performed by the teachers. He holds much skepticism about the high expectations of technologies of all kinds, including that media seem to offer alternative and more effective features than those available from the conventional teacher in the conventional classroom.
Clarke (1994) contends that media does not influence learning under any condition. He further contends that even if there are differences in learning outcomes, they are due to the methods used, not the medium. Media are seen as those external devices that set the stage for some cognitive activities because they are apart of the learners priori anticipations (Clarke 1994). Beliefs about the medium’s difficulty level and entertainment potential, the type of information usually presented and the typical instructional demands usually influence the way the medium is perceived by the learner.
Media and technology are important instructional design
On the other hand, Kozma (1994) views media as much more than a vehicle, seeing it as a part of the cognitive and mental processes involved in learning. He says media can be defined by their technologies, their symbol systems and their processing capabilities (Kozma, 1994). It is in his argument that it becomes clear that media and technology are inextricably linked and one cannot discuss the one at the exclusion of the other. The main characteristic of a medium is its technology, that is, the mechanical and electronic aspects that decide its function and possibly may even shape other physical aspects. These are the features that will classify a television or a radio or a computer, for example. According to Kozma (1994), the primary effect of a medium’s technology is to enable and constrain its two capabilities: the symbol systems it can employ and the process that can be performed with it. Computers with features such as greater memory capacity or with speech synthesis board or a graphics board can be more effective than those without. Symbol and processing capabilities have a number of implications for learning.
Salomon (1974) explains the connection between a medium’s symbol system and mental representations. As he describes it, symbols are sets of elements such as words and pictures (among others) that are interrelated within each system by syntax and are used in specifiable ways in relation to fields of reference such as words and sentences in a text which may represent people, objects and activities and be structured in a way that forms a story. A medium, then, can be described by its capabilities to use certain symbols systems. Television is thought of as a medium that is capable of using representational (picture) and audio-linguistic symbols systems as distinguished from radio which use a sub- set of symbols systems.
These characteristics of media can be used to distinguish and analyze media since they are relevant to the way learners represent and process information from a medium. Some symbols of a certain media can connect mental representations to the real world in a way that learners with little prior knowledge have trouble doing on their own without the representation in these symbol systems. Coyne, (1995) establishes the link between “human actions, the materiality of the way the senses interact and formative power of technology”. Mayer (2003) supports the view of cognitive involvement in the way media is perceived and received by the learner.
The processing capabilities of a medium can complement those of the learner, facilitating the operations the learner is capable of performing or performing those that the learner cannot. Such processes may fall within the “zone of proximal development” and the learner may come to incorporate these into his schema.

Kozma (1994) views on media directly challenges Clarke’s views that media are “mere vehicles that deliver instruction”. Instead he sees the learner as actively collaborating with the medium to construct knowledge. In his views, learning is an active, constructive process in which the learner strategically manages available cognitive resources to create new knowledge by extracting information from the environment and integrating it with information already stored in long term memory. He believes that:
this process is complicated by the cognitive factors such as the duration of information in short term memory, how the information is structured and how the information is available in long term memory. As a result, the process is sensitive to characteristics of the external environment such as the availability of the specific information at the time, how long the information is available for and the ease with which it can be searched for.

Much of this disequilibrium and dissonance can be managed by the integration of media such books, television, radio, computer and the internet in the learning environment.
Thus learning through a computer is not the same as learning from a book or learning from a lecture. They are all different forms of learning, and each result in a slightly different way of knowing about something. Deep understanding (or 'meaning') occurs when all forms of 'knowing' developed by a learner are internally reconciled and integrated by the learner (Kenny, Zhang, Schwier, & Campbell, 2005).
What is the role of media and technology in instructional design?
Clarke (1994) believes one cannot depend on media to facilitate learning while Kozma (1994) maintains that media aid cognitive processing and is more than a ‘delivery truck’.
While media are not restricted to computer, computer mediated communications involves using computer technologies as bulletin board and e-mail to connect learners at a distance. Interactions are usually asynchronously with participants responding at different times although synchronous interactions are possible. Such communications can supplement or be the primary mode of course delivery. Distance education and its new forms of distributed learning have been facilitated by the new instructional technology create and enable the distribution of education to more distant places (Bullen, Janes 2006).
When technology is used as a tool in the classroom, students are learning how to learn; they are learning new skills that will help them both in school and in the workplace; they are learning how to dialogue with professionals and use feedback; and they are motivated to stay in school. In this way, students are able to search for information, become more responsible for their knowledge and learning and be analytical and critical users of information. If the teacher is situated as the sole purveyor of knowledge, and the media and technology are irrelevant, then the students would not be challenged to engage in higher order thinking skills. Students who are immersed in a technology rich environment demonstrate more enthusiasm for learning, the classroom interactions are more meaningful and there is greater engagement of students. A higher level of motivation is also evident as well as improved students attitude. This, despite age, race and socio-economic background.

Technologies can also be used as media for learning through communication. The innovative uses of technologies have resulted in the development of communication symbol systems that support learning through communication with others. Most of the course package web systems present a communication model. There are conferences, assignment drop boxes, lectures and lecture notes. Collaborative learning mediated through new technologies are also playing out the role of technology and media.
Technologies can be used as media for learning through expression. Computer based photo, music and video editing demonstrates how new technologies are oriented towards expression.
Media and technology fosters a sense of independence in the learner as they interact with the technology and receive feedback . The design

What must be done
According to Bates (2000), more is required of technology than just new investments; it will require radical changes in organization and teaching methods. He also contends that specific plans must be put in place in institutions to develop academic and teaching plans that delineate the ways in which technology will be integrated in the teaching learning experience. Bullen and Janes (2006) in their study on the implementation of digital systems in educational institutions recommended that such organizations must have a vision of what the technologies will accomplish rather than simply implementing for the sake of implementation. Coyne (1995) maintains that technology integration must be “fluid and responsive to community’s changing… needs” Media selection is important in instructional design as the type selected must be relevant to the learning needs as postulated by Bates (2000). The needs and characteristics of the learners must be given priority as well as the way and ease with which they will use the media. Other factors such as cost and novelty are outline by Bates and Poole (2003) in their SECTIONS model.


Conclusion
Media and Technology forms an integral part of instructional planning and design. Both are intertwined and must be considered together when designing for instruction. Their role spans more than novel engagement but instead accounts for the cognitive responses in the learning experience. Were they not significant, learners would be at best described as passive recipients of information. Instead, the effective planning and design, media and technology can produce active, responsive, motivated and critical users of information.



References

Bates, A.W. (2000). Managing Technological Change: Strategies for College and University Leaders. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. ISBN: 0-7879-4681
Bates, A.W., and Poole, G. (2003). Effective teaching with technology in higher education: Foundations for success. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. 79 - 80.
Bullen, and Janes. (2006) Making the Transition to E-learning: Strategies & Issues. Hershey, PA.: Information Science Publishing. ISBN: 9781591409519
Clarke, R.E. (1994). Media will never influence learning. Educational technology research and and development
Coyne, R.D., (1995). Designing information technology in the postmodern age: from method to metaphor. Cambride, Mass.: MIT Press
Kenny, R.F., Zhang, Z., Schwier, R.A., & Campbell, K. (2005). A review of what instructional dsigners do: Questions answered and questions not asked. Canadian Journal of learning and technology
Kozma, R.B. (1994). Will media influence learning? Reframing he debate. Educational technology research and development,
Mayer, R.A. (2003). Elements of a science of e-learning. Journal of educational computing research
Seels, B.B., (1995). Instructional design fundamentals: a reconsideration. Englewood Cliff, New Jersey Educational Technology Publications